Abstract Expressionism Sculpture Artists A Deep Dive

Abstract expressionism sculpture artists, a revolutionary force in the world of art, challenged conventional notions of form and representation. These groundbreaking artists, often working in vibrant and innovative ways, crafted sculptures that reflected the tumultuous spirit of their time. From the historical context of the movement to the innovative techniques employed, this exploration will delve into the unique world of these sculptors, their works, and their lasting legacy.

This exploration of abstract expressionism sculpture artists will examine the diverse approaches of key figures, highlighting their individual styles and the materials and techniques they used. We will also discuss the philosophical and emotional ideas embedded within these works, and the profound impact these artists had on subsequent generations of sculptors. The journey promises to reveal a wealth of knowledge and appreciation for this significant artistic movement.

Table of Contents

Introduction to Abstract Expressionism Sculpture

Abstract expressionism sculpture artists

Abstract expressionism in sculpture, a vibrant movement of the mid-20th century, broke free from traditional representational forms. It embraced the raw energy and emotional intensity of the artist’s inner world, expressing it through non-representational, often monumental forms. The movement’s impact reverberates through contemporary art, influencing countless artists and pushing the boundaries of what sculpture could achieve.This innovative approach to three-dimensional art was deeply rooted in the socio-political climate of the time, mirroring the anxieties and aspirations of a generation grappling with rapid change.

Artists sought to express profound feelings through the very act of creating, employing unconventional materials and techniques.

Defining Abstract Expressionism in Sculpture

Abstract expressionist sculpture is characterized by its non-representational forms. It often abandons traditional notions of beauty and harmony, embracing instead the expressive power of raw materials and dynamic compositions. Artists explored the full potential of three-dimensional space, often creating monumental pieces that engaged with the viewer on a visceral level. This approach was a departure from the more traditional methods and subject matter of previous eras.

Historical Context and Influences

The post-World War II era provided the fertile ground for the abstract expressionist movement to blossom. The horrors of war and the anxieties of a rapidly changing world spurred artists to seek new ways of expressing the human condition. Influences ranged from the burgeoning Abstract Expressionist painting movement to the avant-garde art of Europe. A crucial element was the burgeoning interest in non-representational art, both in painting and sculpture.

Characteristics Distinguishing Abstract Expressionist Sculpture

Abstract expressionist sculpture often features:

Dynamic Composition: Sculptures frequently incorporated dynamism and movement, conveying a sense of energy and passion.
Raw Materials: Artists frequently used unconventional materials like wood, metal, or found objects, highlighting the raw nature of the artistic process.
Monumental Scale: Many abstract expressionist sculptures were monumental, designed to engage the viewer on a large and powerful scale. This size often amplified the emotional impact of the work.
Emotional Expression: The sculpture aimed to convey the artist’s emotional state, using forms and textures to communicate a range of feelings and experiences.

Key Dates and Events

The following table Artikels key dates and events in the history of abstract expressionist sculpture:

Year	Event
1940s	Early experiments with non-representational forms in sculpture begin to emerge.
1950s	The movement gains significant momentum, with artists like David Smith and others creating iconic pieces.
1960s	The movement’s influence extends to other artistic disciplines and continues to inspire new generations of artists.

Key Artists and Their Works

Abstract expressionism sculpture, a vibrant offshoot of the larger movement, saw artists pushing boundaries and exploring new avenues of form and expression. This era witnessed a departure from traditional representational art, embracing the raw, emotional, and often spontaneous nature of the creative process. The emphasis shifted towards the inherent qualities of materials and the very act of creation itself.The artists involved in abstract expressionism sculpture brought unique perspectives and techniques to the forefront.

Their diverse approaches and experimentation fostered a rich tapestry of artistic expression, making this period a significant turning point in the history of sculpture.

Important Abstract Expressionist Sculptors

The movement attracted a diverse array of talented artists, each with their distinctive style. Their individual visions and interpretations of abstract form resulted in a wide range of sculptural works. From the monumental to the intimate, the works showcased a range of emotions and ideas, capturing the spirit of the era.

David Smith, known for his welded steel sculptures, often incorporated industrial materials into his work, showcasing a unique blend of functionality and artistry. He created intricate forms with a bold, almost mechanical, sensibility. Smith’s work often employed bold lines and geometric shapes, evoking a sense of dynamism and precision. Notable examples include “Cubist Head” and “Cubi.”
Louise Bourgeois, a prominent figure in abstract expressionism, often explored themes of the subconscious and personal experience. Her sculptures, often unsettling and provocative, frequently incorporated organic and biomorphic forms. Her work frequently reflected a powerful emotional intensity and a complex psychological depth. Examples of her work include “Maman” and “The Spider.”
Alexander Calder, celebrated for his kinetic sculptures, incorporated movement and chance into his artistic process. His mobiles, a unique characteristic of his style, utilized wire, metal, and other materials to create captivating compositions that reacted to air currents. These pieces became iconic symbols of the movement’s focus on dynamism and spontaneity. His works include “Lobster Trap and Fish Tail” and “Red Mobile.”
Richard Lippold, a master of abstraction, created sculptures that explored the relationship between space and form. His work frequently involved delicate and airy constructions, often employing thin metal rods and wires, creating a sense of weightlessness and fragility. Lippold’s works were evocative of light and shadow, creating a dynamic and ethereal quality. Examples of his work include “Air Form” and “String.”

Comparing Artistic Approaches

The diverse styles of these artists highlight the multifaceted nature of abstract expressionism sculpture. David Smith’s focus on industrial materials and geometric forms contrasts sharply with Louise Bourgeois’s exploration of the subconscious and biomorphic shapes. Alexander Calder’s emphasis on kinetic art, where the sculpture itself becomes an active element in the environment, stands in contrast to Richard Lippold’s delicate and ethereal constructions.

These differences demonstrate the movement’s embrace of individual expression and the experimentation with various materials, techniques, and ideas.

Artist	Key Sculptures	Artistic Style
David Smith	“Cubist Head,” “Cubi”	Welded steel sculptures, bold lines, geometric forms, industrial materials.
Louise Bourgeois	“Maman,” “The Spider”	Organic, biomorphic forms, exploration of the subconscious, emotional intensity.
Alexander Calder	“Lobster Trap and Fish Tail,” “Red Mobile”	Kinetic sculptures, mobiles, movement, chance, dynamism, spontaneity.
Richard Lippold	“Air Form,” “String”	Delicate constructions, thin metal rods, wires, ethereal quality, exploration of space and form.

Materials and Techniques

Abstract Expressionist sculptors weren’t afraid to experiment, pushing the boundaries of what was considered possible. They embraced a wide range of materials and techniques, reflecting the era’s spirit of innovation and the artists’ desire to express themselves with unbridled creativity. Their choices weren’t arbitrary; each material and method played a vital role in shaping the sculpture’s aesthetic. This exploration led to a remarkable diversity in form and expression.Sculptors often saw materials not just as building blocks, but as extensions of their artistic voices.

The weight, texture, and color of each material became integral components of the artwork, contributing to its emotional impact. Techniques were equally important, transforming raw materials into powerful statements.

Diverse Materials

Abstract Expressionist sculptors embraced a wide array of materials, moving beyond traditional options. They utilized everything from readily available, everyday items to more exotic and unusual substances, reflecting a desire to push the boundaries of artistic expression. This willingness to experiment with different mediums resulted in a truly diverse aesthetic.

Metal, such as steel, bronze, and aluminum, was frequently used for its strength and ability to hold complex forms.
Wood, in various forms and treatments, provided a warm and organic counterpoint to the more industrial materials.
Stone, with its inherent weight and history, offered a sense of permanence and gravitas.
Found objects, ranging from discarded metal scraps to broken machinery, were incorporated to create unique and often unexpected compositions.
Plastics and resins, gaining popularity during the period, allowed for new possibilities in form and texture, offering a surprising lightness and flexibility.
Glass and ceramics were used for their transparency, fragility, and potential for delicate, almost ethereal forms.

Sculpting Techniques

The techniques employed by Abstract Expressionist sculptors were just as diverse as the materials. These artists weren’t bound by traditional methods; instead, they embraced a wide range of approaches to achieve their unique visions. These techniques, along with the choice of materials, created the sculpture’s overall effect.

Welding, particularly important in metal sculpture, allowed for intricate, strong forms.
Casting, using various methods, created smooth surfaces and offered precision in replicating forms.
Assemblage, where disparate elements were joined together, provided an exciting way to express a sense of juxtaposition and surprise.
Carving, a traditional method, was used for its ability to create intricate details and to reveal the inherent character of the material.
Molding and casting techniques were crucial in shaping and replicating complex forms.

Materials and Aesthetic

The interaction between materials and techniques directly influenced the sculptures’ aesthetic qualities. For example, the use of found objects in assemblage created a sense of the everyday incorporated into the artistic realm. The weight and texture of bronze evoked a sense of solidity and permanence, while the fragility of glass suggested vulnerability and ephemerality. These choices weren’t accidental; they were deliberate decisions that shaped the overall effect of the work.

Artist	Primary Material	Primary Technique	Aesthetic Impact
Alexander Calder	Metal (primarily wire)	Welding, construction	Lightness, dynamic movement
David Smith	Metal (primarily steel)	Welding, assemblage	Strength, industrial imagery
Louise Nevelson	Wood, found objects	Assemblage	Layered forms, evocative compositions
Isamu Noguchi	Stone, wood, metal	Carving, construction	Simplicity, harmony of materials

Artistic Concepts and Themes

Abstract expressionist sculptures, much like their painting counterparts, ventured into uncharted territory, reflecting a profound shift in artistic thought. These weren’t mere representations; they were powerful statements about existence, emotion, and the human condition. The artists sought to capture the inner turmoil and the raw energy of the world, translating these experiences into physical forms.Abstract expressionist sculptors grappled with existential questions, often pushing the boundaries of what was considered acceptable or even comprehensible.

Their work mirrored the angst and exhilaration of a world in flux, a world grappling with the aftermath of war and the uncertainties of the modern era. This manifested in the sculptures’ forms, shapes, and materials, creating a potent blend of intellectual exploration and emotional expression.

Philosophical and Intellectual Ideas

Abstract expressionist sculptures frequently reflected philosophical ideas about existence, freedom, and the human condition. The non-representational forms challenged viewers to engage with the artwork on a deeper, more introspective level. The lack of traditional subject matter encouraged viewers to bring their own interpretations and experiences to the work, making it highly personal and resonant. These artists sought to convey a sense of freedom and liberation, often breaking from established artistic conventions.

Emotional and Psychological Aspects

The forms and shapes in abstract expressionist sculptures often spoke volumes about the emotional and psychological states of the artists. The raw, energetic lines and bold colors conveyed a sense of passion, intensity, and even anguish. The dynamic compositions suggested a constant state of flux, reflecting the unpredictable nature of human emotions. Some sculptures were intended to evoke a sense of awe and wonder, while others expressed more profound feelings of loneliness, isolation, or anxiety.

The sculptures were not meant to be static; they were meant to engage the viewer on an emotional level.

Recurring Themes

Several recurring themes permeated the abstract expressionist sculpture movement. These themes, often subtly expressed through the sculptural forms, spoke volumes about the human condition.

Existentialism: Many sculptures explored the themes of existence, freedom, and the search for meaning. The non-representational forms could be interpreted as reflections on the vastness of existence, leaving room for diverse interpretations. For instance, a sculpture composed of fragmented, seemingly disconnected forms might symbolize the fragmented nature of the human experience or the search for personal identity.
Abstract Emotion: The artists aimed to translate abstract emotions into physical forms. A sculpture’s form, texture, and material choices could be interpreted as manifestations of joy, sorrow, or anger. The interplay of light and shadow could further enhance the emotional impact, highlighting the power of the unseen forces behind the sculpted forms.
Abstraction of the Human Form: While not always directly depicting the human form, many abstract expressionist sculptures subtly alluded to it. The organic shapes and dynamic compositions could be seen as metaphors for the human body and its complex inner workings. The raw energy and bold lines might mirror the human body’s internal struggles and conflicts.
Urban Landscape: Some sculptures drew inspiration from the urban environment. The city’s chaotic energy and relentless pace could be captured through abstract forms and materials, reflecting the artists’ engagement with their surroundings.

Themes and Their Expression

Theme	Expression in Sculptures
Existentialism	Non-representational forms, fragmented shapes, and exploration of the human condition through abstract expressions.
Abstract Emotion	Dynamic compositions, raw materials, bold colors, and texture to express feelings, like anger, joy, and sorrow.
Abstraction of the Human Form	Organic shapes, dynamic compositions, and raw materials representing human bodies and their complex inner workings.
Urban Landscape	Abstract forms and materials capturing the city’s chaotic energy and relentless pace.

Influence and Legacy: Abstract Expressionism Sculpture Artists

Abstract expressionist sculpture, a bold and innovative movement, didn’t just appear out of thin air. It built upon earlier artistic explorations, and in turn, profoundly impacted the art world that followed. Its raw energy and exploration of form reverberated through subsequent decades, influencing not just sculptors but artists across various mediums. This legacy continues to inspire and challenge artists today.This section will delve into the profound impact of abstract expressionist sculpture, examining its influence on subsequent movements and contemporary artists.

We’ll also look at the lasting impact of these artists on the art world, comparing and contrasting abstract expressionism with other sculptural traditions.

Impact on Subsequent Art Movements

Abstract expressionist sculpture challenged traditional notions of form and function, opening the door for a wide range of innovative approaches. The movement’s emphasis on emotional expression and spontaneous creation laid the groundwork for subsequent movements that embraced abstraction and personal expression. The freedom of form and material choices inspired a generation of artists.

Influence on Contemporary Artists

The bold experimentation of abstract expressionist sculptors continues to resonate with contemporary artists. The exploration of non-traditional materials and processes, the focus on the emotional response of the viewer, and the emphasis on personal expression all continue to be relevant and influential themes. Many contemporary artists are actively engaged in re-imagining and re-interpreting these ideas.

Comparing Abstract Expressionism Sculpture with Other Sculptural Movements, Abstract expressionism sculpture artists

Movement	Key Characteristics	Distinguishing Features of Abstract Expressionism Sculpture
Abstract Expressionism	Emphasis on emotional expression, spontaneous creation, non-representational forms.	Direct engagement with the emotional experience, use of dynamic forms, exploration of personal expression through material choices.
Minimalism	Geometric forms, reductive aesthetic, emphasis on materials, often industrial.	Direct contrast to abstract expressionism’s emphasis on emotional expression; often less spontaneous.
Conceptual Art	Emphasis on the idea behind the work, often challenging traditional notions of art.	Abstract expressionism’s focus on emotional response may inform conceptual art’s exploration of ideas; but abstract expressionism often has a more immediate, less intellectual focus.
Figurative Sculpture	Depiction of human forms, or other subjects.	A clear departure from figurative art’s focus on representation.

This table highlights some key differences and similarities between abstract expressionism and other sculptural movements, illustrating the distinct path carved by abstract expressionism. The movement’s impact is evident in the contrasting characteristics of other sculptural approaches.

Lasting Legacy in the Art World

Abstract expressionist sculpture continues to shape the art world today. The legacy is not simply in the works themselves, but also in the artistic freedoms and experimental spirit it fostered. This approach is still valued and referenced in contemporary art discussions, highlighting the profound and enduring impact of this movement. The influence extends beyond sculpture, impacting visual arts, design, and other creative fields.

Exploring Specific Works in Detail

Diving into the vibrant world of Abstract Expressionist sculpture reveals a fascinating tapestry of artistic vision and technical mastery. Each piece, more than just a collection of materials, becomes a window into the artist’s mind, a testament to their unique approach to form, space, and meaning. We’ll now examine a specific work in detail, uncovering the layers of inspiration and execution.

Let’s explore the monumental “Untitled” by sculptor David Smith, a cornerstone of the movement. This piece, crafted from steel, epitomizes the dynamic energy and material exploration that defined Abstract Expressionism. Smith’s work, often characterized by a blend of industrial aesthetic and raw emotional impact, is an excellent example to analyze.

Sculptural Elements in “Untitled”

The “Untitled” sculpture, constructed from welded steel, is a study in contrasts. The raw, industrial material, often associated with strength and resilience, is transformed into a complex composition that speaks to the human experience. The sculpture employs a powerful interplay of lines and forms, which create a sense of movement and dynamism. The forms are not precisely defined; rather, they exist in a state of tension and flux, mirroring the internal conflicts and the emotional currents of the human spirit.

Space is used deliberately, creating areas of emptiness and void that balance the solid forms and add to the overall effect. The surface texture of the steel, a product of the welding process, adds depth and complexity to the piece, lending a unique quality to the work.

Possible Meanings and Interpretations

The abstract nature of “Untitled” invites diverse interpretations. Some might see the sculpture as a reflection of the modern world, its industrial dynamism and emotional turbulence. Others might interpret the work as a representation of human emotions, their complexities and contradictions. The open-ended nature of the piece allows for multiple perspectives and individual experiences to converge on its essence.

The sculpture’s impact is often deeply personal, allowing viewers to connect with it on a visceral level.

Artist’s Intentions and Expression

David Smith, in his “Untitled,” sought to convey a profound sense of movement and dynamism. He meticulously manipulated the steel, using welding as a means of both construction and artistic expression. The raw material became a canvas for his ideas, and the sculpture is a physical manifestation of his thoughts. The work demonstrates a commitment to innovation and a willingness to challenge the conventions of traditional sculpture.

Smith’s intentional use of space and the inherent texture of the steel creates a tangible sense of the process involved in creating the piece.

Techniques Used in Creation

The creation of “Untitled” involved a meticulous process. The sculpture’s distinctive form is the result of welding techniques. Smith likely experimented with different welding approaches, considering the stress on the steel and the desired visual effect. The careful placement of welded sections, along with the use of various tools and equipment, played a crucial role in the development of the sculpture.

The process was a significant part of the final artwork, influencing the texture and form. Careful consideration was given to the weight distribution, ensuring the stability of the final piece. The material and techniques employed by Smith highlight the crucial role of craftsmanship in abstract expressionism.

Visual Representation of Key Concepts

Abstract Expressionist sculpture, a dynamic and emotive art form, captures the essence of the movement through a unique visual language. These pieces aren’t merely representations of objects or people; they’re explorations of inner experience, expressing the artist’s emotional journey and philosophical musings. The sculptors, driven by an urge to break free from traditional forms, utilized unconventional materials and techniques to achieve a visceral and profound impact.These sculptures, often characterized by a sense of dynamism and spontaneity, embody the spirit of the movement.

They aren’t meant to be easily interpreted; rather, they invite viewers to engage with the work on a deeply personal level, allowing emotions and ideas to unfold. The very act of looking at these pieces becomes a journey of discovery, encouraging contemplation and a deeper understanding of the human condition.

Sculptural Characteristics

Abstract Expressionist sculptures showcase a variety of visual characteristics that distinguish them from earlier styles. These characteristics reflect the movement’s core values of spontaneity, emotionality, and the exploration of the subconscious. The materials often chosen are raw, natural, or industrial; these elements reflect the raw energy and emotional intensity within the piece.

Form and Shape: Forms are often organic, flowing, and dynamic, rather than geometric or rigid. They frequently evoke a sense of movement and energy, mimicking the chaotic yet beautiful nature of the human experience. Think of the way a flame dances or a cloud drifts, or even the chaotic movement of a storm. These sculpted forms are a visual representation of these abstract ideas.
Materiality: Materials are often chosen for their inherent qualities, highlighting their textures and weights. Bronze, steel, wood, and even found objects might be incorporated. These materials provide a tactile element, deepening the connection between the viewer and the artwork.
Space and Composition: The interplay of space within and around the sculpture is a crucial element. Negative space is often just as important as positive space, creating a sense of depth and dimension that transcends the limitations of a two-dimensional plane.

Emotional Impact

The emotional impact of Abstract Expressionist sculptures stems from their raw, unfiltered expression. They evoke a range of feelings, from awe and wonder to anxiety and introspection. The sculptures can be powerful and intense, or serene and contemplative. Their impact hinges on the viewer’s own experiences and interpretations.

Spontaneity: The very act of creation, captured in the piece, conveys a sense of immediacy and emotional intensity. This spontaneity often translates to a raw, powerful energy in the sculpture.
Subjectivity: The lack of literal representation invites the viewer to project their own feelings and experiences onto the work. This subjective approach allows for a personal connection with the piece.
Intentionality: The deliberate use of materials and techniques creates a strong sense of intentionality in the sculpture. The viewer is invited to contemplate the artist’s intent and their underlying motivations.

Visual Examples

These examples showcase how visual characteristics embody the movement’s spirit. Consider the following examples of Abstract Expressionist sculptures:

“Untitled” by David Smith (1950s). This piece utilizes welded steel to create a complex interplay of forms. The raw, industrial materials give a sense of strength and resilience, and the interplay of positive and negative space creates an impressive sense of depth and volume. The viewer is drawn into the dynamic composition, feeling a sense of energy and movement.

“Reclining Figure” by Louise Bourgeois (1960s). This piece utilizes wood and metal to create a form that evokes a sense of both vulnerability and strength. The organic curves and the use of textures invite contemplation and introspection. The piece might be viewed as a representation of the human form in a state of repose, yet it still retains an emotional power.

“Untitled” by Mark Tobey (1950s). This piece, using mixed media, embodies a sense of abstract fluidity and spontaneity. The interplay of textures, colours, and materials creates a unique visual experience. The viewer is invited to experience the interplay of colour and form.

Sculptural Evolution and Innovation

Abstract expressionist sculpture, a vibrant and dynamic movement, wasn’t simply a static representation of ideas; it was a continuous exploration, a restless journey of experimentation. Artists pushed boundaries, challenged conventions, and redefined the very essence of sculptural form, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire and influence contemporary artists. This evolution wasn’t linear; it was a complex interplay of diverse approaches, each artist contributing their unique perspective to the ever-shifting landscape of the movement.From the initial forays into abstract forms, artists began to explore the very nature of material, space, and the viewer’s relationship to the art.

The movement embraced a multitude of approaches, reflecting the multifaceted nature of the artistic vision.

Key Innovations in Techniques

Abstract expressionist sculptors embraced innovative techniques that transformed the traditional methods of creating three-dimensional art. The exploration of unconventional materials and innovative fabrication methods led to a remarkable diversity in the final sculptures. These innovations weren’t just about the materials themselves, but also about the ways these materials interacted with space and the viewer’s perception.

Exploration of Unconventional Materials: Artists like David Smith and Louise Nevelson ventured beyond traditional materials like bronze and marble, incorporating found objects, industrial materials, and even wood, transforming these materials into evocative sculptural forms. This demonstrated a new appreciation for the unique qualities of different materials, moving beyond the historical limitations of traditional sculptural materials.
Development of Assemblage Techniques: The technique of assembling disparate elements to create a unified whole became a defining characteristic of abstract expressionism. This method allowed artists to explore the juxtaposition of different forms and textures, creating complex and layered compositions. Assemblage techniques allowed artists to bring together disparate objects and transform them into meaningful artistic statements.
Embrace of Process and Gesture: The focus on the process of creation became as important as the finished product. Artists like Tony Smith, with their emphasis on the sculptural gesture, underscored the creative act as a fundamental aspect of the art itself. The artist’s imprint on the work became a crucial element, reflecting the artist’s physical involvement and emotional investment in the piece.

Changing Aesthetics of Abstract Expressionist Sculpture

The aesthetic of abstract expressionist sculpture evolved dramatically over time. Initially, there was a focus on monumental scale, reflecting a desire to confront the viewer with the raw power and emotional impact of the artwork. Later, there was a shift towards smaller, more intimate works, focusing on the interplay of form and space. This evolution mirrored the movement’s broader philosophical shift, from grand pronouncements to more introspective explorations.

From Monumental to Intimate: Early works often featured large-scale sculptures, aiming to evoke a sense of grandeur and awe. Subsequently, artists explored smaller-scale pieces, emphasizing a more personal and introspective engagement with the artwork. This evolution reflected a shift in the artists’ concerns, from public pronouncements to more private expressions.
Shifting from Geometric Abstraction to Biomorphic Forms: The early works often featured geometric forms, reflecting a desire to create clean and precise structures. Later, many artists moved towards biomorphic forms, incorporating organic shapes and flowing lines, echoing the natural world and exploring the human form in abstract terms.
Emphasis on Space and Form: Abstract expressionist sculptors started focusing on how the artwork interacted with the surrounding space. This shift emphasized the relationship between the sculpture and the viewer’s experience of the space, creating a more dynamic and immersive interaction.

Timeline of Key Innovations

The evolution of abstract expressionist sculpture was a dynamic process. A timeline highlighting key innovations provides a clear picture of the progression and the various influences that shaped the movement.

Year	Innovation	Artist(s)
1940s	Initial explorations of non-traditional materials	David Smith, Louise Nevelson
1950s	Emergence of Assemblage	Various artists, including those mentioned earlier.
1960s	Focus on Process and Gesture	Tony Smith, others
1960s-1970s	Shift from monumental to intimate scale; biomorphic forms	Various artists